Top-Down Processing and Perception

Top-Down Processing and Perception Basics Print Top-Down Processing and Perception By Kendra Cherry facebook twitter Kendra Cherry, MS, is an author, educational consultant, and speaker focused on helping students learn about psychology. Learn about our editorial policy Kendra Cherry Updated on December 29, 2018 Dorling Kindersley / Getty Images More in Psychology Basics Psychotherapy Student Resources History and Biographies Theories Phobias Emotions Sleep and Dreaming Top-down processing is when we form our perceptions starting with a larger object, concept, or idea before working our way toward more detailed information. In other words, top-down processing happens when we work from the general to the specificâ€"the big picture to the tiny details. In top-down processing, your abstract impressions can influence the information that you gather through your five senses. The Importance of Top-Down Processing Why is top-down processing important? We are surrounded by so much information that it would simply be impossible to attend to and process every single detail. Top-down processing works to help simply our understanding of the world. The broad, general impressions you gather upon first glance may then help influence the more finer details that you focus on as you take in more information about your environment. Consider just how much information you might be inundated by at any given moment. You are surrounded by a plethora of sights, sounds, smells, tastes, textures, and physical sensations. If you focused equally on each and every one of these sensations, you would be overwhelmed. Processing information from the top-down allows us to make sense of information that has already been brought in by the senses, working downward from initial impressions down to lower-level senses. How Existing Knowledge Influences Perception Top-down processing is also known as conceptually-driven processing since your perceptions are influenced by expectations, existing beliefs, and understanding. In some cases, you are aware of these influences, but in other instances, this process occurs without conscious awareness. For Example: Imagine that you are driving down an unfamiliar street and you see a sign for a convenience store. The sign has several missing letters, but youre still able to read it. Why? Because you use top-down processing and rely on your existing knowledge to make an educated guess about what the sign says. Benefits and Weaknesses of Top-Down Processing In a world where we are surrounded by virtually limitless sensory experiences and information, top-down processing can help us to quickly make sense of the environment.This type of processing can be useful when we are looking for patterns in our environment, but it can also hinder our ability to perceive things in new and different ways.Our bias toward viewing objects in a certain way based on our experiences, beliefs, and expectations, is known as a perceptual set. Influences On This Process A number of things can influence top-down processing, including context and motivation. The context, or circumstances, in which an event or object is perceived can influence what we expect to find in that particular situation. If you are reading an article about food and nutrition, for example, you might interpret a word youre not familiar with as something related to food. Motivation can also make you more likely to interpret something in a particular way. For example, if you were shown a series of ambiguous images, you might be more motivated to perceive them as food-related when youre hungry. Top-Down Processing In Action In order to better understand how top-down processing works, it can be helpful to explore a few examples of this phenomenon in action. The Stroop Effect: One classic example of top-down processing in action is a phenomenon known as the Stroop effect. In this task, color words are printed in other colors. So, for example, the word Red might be printed in blue, the word Pink might be printed in white, and so on. Participants are asked to say the color of the word but not the actual word itself. When reaction times are measured, people are much slower at saying the correct color when the color and the word are not the same. Top-down processing explains why this task is so difficult. People automatically recognize the word before they think about the color, making it easier to read the word aloud rather than to say the color of the word.Typos: When you are reading a block of text, you might find yourself not even noticing typos and other text errors. As you read along, the preceding words provide context about what you can expect to read next. Because of this, your brain often simply fills in missing details and correct s errors as you read so that you do not even notice such mistakes.

Hardware Controls, Proper Risk Assessment, And Management...

3. There are many components including each of the general controls, applications controls, proper risk assessment, and management policies. Each of the previously mentions plays a key roles in the organizational framework but must be utilized in the proper manner to work reliably and effectively. - General Controls include software, hardware, computer operations controls data security, implementation, administrative controls and basically dictate all aspects of the organizations information technology infrastructure. Software controls monitor systems and prevent access from authorized users. Hardware controls make sure that the actual hardware is safe and is always checking to make sure that the equipment doesn’t malfunction. This also covers the backup systems. Computer operations controls keep the data in check by correctly storing it. Data security does just as it suggests keep the data safe in whatever form so that it is not destroyed or altered. Implementation is basically the systems checker and makes sure that at each point the controls are working. Lastly administrative controls are used to create rules and procedures that need to be carried out in order to keep the system running in proper order. - Application Controls are more specific and are often more unique to each organization and make sure that the accurate data is processed for the organization. These controls are input, processing, and output. Input controls which is just like a fact checker and makeShow MoreRelatedRisk Management Is The Process Of Information System Management Essay942 Words   |  4 Pages Risk Management: Risk management is the process of information system managers applies to balance the operational and economic costs of protective measures for their information and information systems. As a part risk management process, organizations (Stoneburner, 2002) select and apply security controls for their information and information systems. 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No Comfort Zone By Marla Handy Essay - 1461 Words

In No Comfort Zone, Marla Handy brings to the surface something many people tend to avoid: post-traumatic stress disorder. Unlike for many members of society, for Handy, it is not and never will be something she can avoid. She works to, momentarily, at least, bridge this gap for her readers by describing some of the symptoms that she and many others with PTSD live with on a frequent basis. Handy is one of about 8% of people who have been diagnosed with PTSD, defined as â€Å"a disorder that develops in some people who have experienced a shocking, scary, or dangerous event† (Carani). Here it is important to note, however, that this definition does not completely encapsulate Handy’s and some others’ situations. While it uses the singular event, Handy does not have one single moment, day, or occurrence that directly led to her PTSD. Rather, years of child abuse as well as sexual abuse and rape all led to symptoms that manifest in different ways through different triggers. While not many past perceptions of post-traumatic stress disorder can be found due to it being a relatively new diagnosis, the ones that can are largely negative and dismissive. People with PTSD were â€Å"generally viewed as crazy and faking symptoms because they didn’t have an organic cause† (Carani). While this has changed somewhat in current times, there is still a long way to go. For cases like Handy’s that do not stem from one specific event, many are still dismissive: I can only assume that it’s too difficult,Show MoreRelatedLibrary Management204752 Words   |  820 Pagesglobalization, ever-changing technology, and the pace of change. The only constant in today’s organizations is change. Although all change is challenging, that occurring at the present presents particular problems, for as the British management expert Charles Handy has stated, it is not change as we have known it in the past, but discontinuous change, which is particularly disturbing and confusing.5 Libraries will need good managers at all levels to manage the change as they face the redefined world of information

The Ultimate Solution for Essay Samples Is That You Can Learn About Today

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Inflation Essays (1274 words) - Inflation, Deflation, Hyperinflation

Inflation ?INFLATION? Inflation, in economics, is used to describe an increase in the value of money; in relation to the goods and services it will buy. Inflation is the sustained rise in the aggregate level of prices measured by an index of the cost of various goods and services. Repetitive price increase cause the purchasing power of money and other financial assets with fixed values, creating serious economic uncertainty. Inflation results when actual economic pressures anticipation of future developments cause the demand for goods and services to exceed the supply available at existing prices or when available output is restricted by undecided productivity and marketplace constraints. Constant price increases were historically linked to wars, poor harvests, political upheavals, or other unique events. Examples of inflation have occurred throughout history, but detailed records are not available to measure trends before the Middle Ages. Economics historians have identified the 16th to early 17th centuries in Europe as a period of long-term inflation. Major changes occurred during the American Revolution, when prices in the U.S. rose an average of 8.5 percent per month, and during the French Revolution, when prices in France rose at a rate of 10 percent per month. Theses relatively brief events were followed by long periods of alternating international inflations and deflations linked to specific political and economic actions. The U.S. reported average annual price changes as follows: 1790 to 1815- up 3.3 % 1815 to 1850- down 2.3 % 1850 to 1873- up 5.3 % 1873 to 1896- down 1.8 % 1896 to 1920- up 4.2 % 1920 to 1934- down 3.9 % Consumer prices accelerated during the World War 11 era, rising at an average rate of 7.0% from 1940 to 1948, and then stabilizing from 1948 to 1965, when annual increases averaged only 1.6 percent. There is various kind of inflation. When upward trend of prices is gradual and irregular, averaging only a few percentage points each year, inflation is not considered a serious threat to economic and social progress. It may even stimulate economic activity: The illusion of personal income growth beyond actual productivity may encourage consumption; housing investment may increase in anticipation of future price appreciation; business investment in plants and equipment may accelerate as prices rise more rapidly than cost; and personal, business, and government borrowers realize that loans will be repaid with money that has potentially less purchasing power. A greater concern growing is chronic inflation. Chronic inflation tends to become permanent moving upward to even higher levels as economic distortions and negative expectations are brought on. To accommodate chronic inflation, normal economic activities are disrupted: Consumers buy goods and services to avoid even higher prices, real estate speculation increases; businesses concentrate on short-term investments; governments rapidly expand spending in anticipation of inflated revenues; and exporting nations suffer competitive trade disadvantages forcing them to turn to protectionism currency controls. In the extreme form, chronic price increases become hyperinflation, causing the entire system to break down. During a hyperinflation the growth of money and credit becomes explosive, destroying any links to real assets and forcing a trust on complex barter arrangements. As the governments try to pay for increased spending programs by rapidly expanding the money supply, the inflationary financing of budget deficits disrupts economic, social, and political stability. There are many causes of inflation. The demand -pull inflation occurs when aggregate demand exceeds existing supplies, forcing price increases and pulling up wages, materials, and operating and financing costs. Cost-push inflation occurs when prices rise to cover total expenses and preserve profit margins. A persistent cost-price spiral eventually develops as groups and institutions respond to each new round of increases. Deflation occurs when the spiral effects are reversed. To explain why the basic supply and demand elements change, economists have suggested three substantive theories: the available quantity of money; the aggregate level of incomes; and supply-side productivity and cost variables. Monetarists believe that changes in price levels reflect fluctuating volumes of money available, usually defined as currency and demand deposits. They argue that, to create stable prices, the money supply should increase at a stable rate matching with the economy's real output capacity. C ritics of this theory claim that changes in the money supply are a response to, rather than the cause of, price-level

Metaphor essays

Metaphor essays The novel, The Invisible Man by Ralph Ellison, opens with the nameless narrator hearing the last words of his dying grandfather. Throughout the rest of the novel, the messages from his grandfather are omnipresent. They foreshadow his downfalls in the future. He is convinced by his parents to ignore his grandfathers words of wisdom by his parents, but his grandfather is right in the end. INSERT TEXT HERE. The narrator is not only a black man, but a black sheep. The narrator sees his education as his hope for the future. When he looks in the briefcase given to him by the superintendent he sees something. "It was a scholarship to the state college for Negroes. My eyes filled with tears and I ran awkwardly on the floor." The narrator could now afford to take his education further. Education is so important to the narrator because it raises his status above the other blacks, but when he tried to use the education he faltered. He feels as if he will be able to contribute so much to the world when he receives this scholarship from the superintendent. This gives the narrator a hope for the future. Towards the end of the novel, the narrator begins to realize the truth about his life. "I was and yet I was invisible, that was the fundamental contradiction. I was and yet I was unseen. It was frightening and as I sat there I sensed another frightening world of possibilities." ...

Dave the Potter - Enslaved African-American Ceramic Artist

Dave the Potter - Enslaved African-American Ceramic Artist David Drake [1800-1874] was an influential African-American ceramic artist, born into slavery under the pottery-making families of Edgefield, South Carolina. Also known as Dave the Potter, Dave Pottery, Dave the Slave or Dave of the Hive, he is known to have had several different owners during his lifetime, including Harvey Drake, Reuben Drake, Jasper Gibbs, and Lewis Miles. All of these men were in some way related to the ceramic entrepreneurs and slave holders, brothers Reverend John Landrum and Dr. Abner Landrum. In 1815, the Landrums established the Edgefield pottery-making district in west-central South Carolina, and by the mid-19th century, the district had grown to include 12 very large, innovative and influential ceramic stoneware factories. There, the Landrums and their families blended English, European, African, Native American and Chinese ceramic styles, forms and techniques to make durable, non-toxic alternatives to lead-based stonewares. It was in this environment that Dave became an important potter, or turner, eventually working in several of these factories. What We Know About Dave Not much is known about Dave; much of what we do know, scholars derived from census records and news stories. Born in 1800, Dave probably began working in the potteries in his late teens, learning his trade from the European-American potters. The earliest pottery vessels which bear attributes of Daves later pots date to the 1820s and were made in the Pottersville workshop. He apparently worked for Abner Landrums newspaper The Edgefield Hive (sometimes listed as The Columbia Hive), where some scholars believe he learned to read and write. Others believe it is more likely he learned from his owner Reuben Drake. Daves literacy had to have occurred before 1837, when it became illegal in South Carolina to teach slaves to read and write. Dave was owned for a time by Lewis Miles, Abners son-in-law, and he produced at least 100 pots for Miles between July 1834 and January 1864. Dave may well have produced many more, but only about 100 signed pots have survived from that period. He lived through the Civil War, and after the Emancipation, continued to work for the pottery, as David Drake, his new surname taken from one of his past masters. While that doesnt seem like very much information, Dave was one of 76 known enslaved African or African Americans who worked in the Edgefield District. We know far more about Dave the Potter than we do for the others who worked in the ceramic workshops of the Landrums, because he signed and dated some of his ceramics, sometimes incising poetry, proverbs and dedications into the clay surfaces. Writing and Pottery Potters typically use makers marks to identify the potter, the pottery, the prospective owner, or manufacturing details: Dave added quatrains from the bible or his own eccentric poetry. One of the earliest of the poems attributed to Dave is from 1836, a large jar made for the Pottersville foundry, on which he wrote horses, mules and hogs / all our cows is in the bogs / there they shall ever stay / till the buzzards take them away. Burrison (2012) has interpreted this poem to refer to Daves owners selling of several of his co-workers to Louisiana. Chaney (2011) has connected decorative and symbolic markings on slave-produced forms of colonoware to some marks made by Dave. Whether Daves poetry was intended as subversive, humorous or insightful is open to question: probably all three. See Koverman 2005 for a compiled list of all Daves known poems. Style and Form Dave specialized in large storage jars with horizontal slab handles, used for large-scale plantation food preservation, and his pots are among the largest made during the period. In Edgefield, only Dave and Thomas Chandler made pots with such a large capacity. Some hold up to 40 gallons: and they were in high demand. Daves pots, like those of most of the Edgefield potters, were alkaline stonewares, but Daves had a rich streaky brown and green glaze, idiosyncratic to the potter. His inscriptions are the only ones known from American potters at the time, at Edgefield or away from it. Interpretations A considerable amount of scholarship on Daves inscriptions has been amassed over the past couple of decades. Chaney (2011) discusses the politically mute but commercially hypervisible status of Daves writings, and focuses his attention on the poetic inscriptions, the somewhat subversive elements in Daves writing. DeGrofts 1988 article describes the protest contexts of Daves inscriptions; and Burrison (2012) discusses the topics of Daves poetry, as part of a broader discussion of the Edgefield potteries. Perhaps the most focused research into Daves ceramics is by Koverman (2005, 2007, 2009), who, as part of her extensive work on Edgefield pottery works has cataloged and photographed well over 100 vessels marked by Dave or attributed to him. Kovermans nuanced discussion includes Daves artistic influences and training. Sources Burrison JA. 2012. South Carolinas Edgefield district: An early international crossroads of clay. American Studies Journal 56. Chaney MA. 2011. The Concatenate Poetics of Slavery and the Articulate Material of Dave the Potter. African American Review 44(4):607-618. De Groft A. 1998. Eloquent Vessels/Poetics of Power: The Heroic Stoneware of Dave the Potter. Winterthur Portfolio 33(4):249-260. Koverman JB. 2005. The Ceramic Works of David Drake, aka, Dave the Potter or Dave the Slave of Edgefield, South Carolina. American Ceramic Circle Journal 13:83. Koverman JB. 2007. Communities of Heritage: Southern contributions. In: Potter C, editor. Craft in America: Celebrating Two Centuries of Artists and Objects: Random House. p 120-140. Koverman JB. 2009. Clay Connections: A Thousand-Mile Journey from South Carolina to Texas. American Material Culture and the Texas Experience: The David B Warren Symposium. Houston: Museum of Fine Arts. p 118-145.